展覽地點：紡織品文物修復展示館二樓
展覽時間：2019年5月17日 - 2019年8月4日
前言
歐亞大陸貫穿聯(lián)通，早在青銅時代就有文化和技術的傳播和交流。從17世紀末至20世紀初，歐洲與亞洲的交流更為密切，其中紡織品的貿(mào)易往來尤其頻繁。染料，是紡織品色彩的主要來源，能夠反映當時各個地區(qū)的流行顏色，生產(chǎn)工藝以及相互的交流情況。本次展覽將通過文物實物的展示，并根據(jù)紡織品染料的檢測結果，闡述300年歐亞染料的各自特色和共同點，為紡織科技全球史提供實證。
歐亞染料種類繁多，大致可以分為動物染料和植物染料兩種，往往使用明礬、黑礬等礦物作為媒染助劑。動物染料多從昆蟲中提取色素，如胭脂蟲、紫膠蟲在酸性條件下上染纖維可獲得不同色調(diào)的紅紫色；五倍子、沒食子可以與黑礬媒染得到灰黑色。植物染料是天然染料的重要組成部分，各地染匠在生產(chǎn)過程中結合當?shù)刂脖磺闆r不斷選取各種植物色素濃郁的部分作為染料使用。如蘇木的芯材、茜草的根、槐樹的花蕾、核桃的果皮等。除了借助媒染劑和各種如草木灰、烏梅等酸堿性助劑染得更豐富的顏色之外，各地染匠還結合各植物染料本身的特性，相互套色形成各種色調(diào)的紫色、綠色、褐色等間色。300年的歐亞染色史不僅僅映射了歐亞大陸精湛的紡織印染工藝，也是歷代染織匠人的勞動智慧的凝結。
Preface
It’s as early as the Bronze Age that Europe and Asia had cultural and technical exchanges, which became more frequent from the end of the 17th century to the beginning of the 20th century. And trade in textiles was obviously prosperous during that time. Dyes, which can reflect popular colors of various regions and mutual exchanges in production techniques, are main sources of textiles’ colors. The exhibition will illustrate features and similarities of European and Asian dyes through displaying historical relics and unveiling the results of dye identification, providing some evidences for the global history of textile technology.
There are various kinds of dyes in Europe and Asia, which can be roughly divided into animal dyes and plant dyes. Minerals, such as alum and iron, are mostly used as mordant. Most animal dyes are obtained from insects by extracting pigments in them. For instance, cochineal and lac can be used as mordant dyes with the carbonyl and the adjacent phenol groups participating in the fiber–mordant–dye complex to get different shades red and purple; gray and black can be got by dyeing galls of different sumac species with iron. As an essential part of natural dye, plant dyes have always been a priority for dyers who, in the light of local realities, will use the part with strong pigment of a plant as dyes when dyeing, such as cores, trunks, rhizomes of trees, sappanwood, madder, safflower, buds of pagoda tree, peels of pomegranate and walnut. Dyers, for the sake of abundant colors, will not only use mordant and various acidic and alkaline additives to help, including dark plum and lye , but over-dye according to characteristics of plant dyes to get secondary colors like purple, green and brown with various shades. The 300-year dyeing history of Europe and Asia shows both superb dyeing and weaving techniques and wisdom of dyers and weavers in our history.
版塊1：歐洲的榮耀
Part 1 The Glorious Europe
16世紀中后期，西班牙人在南美發(fā)現(xiàn)當?shù)貜V泛使用美洲胭脂蟲，帶回到歐洲，很快代替了歐洲本地產(chǎn)的克玫茲胭脂蟲。此外，來自錫蘭的蘇木和印度的木藍都在17世紀前后輸入歐洲。
In the mid-late 16th Century, the Spaniard discovered that American cochineal was widely used in South America as a mordant dye. Then, it was introduced to Europe, quickly replacing the native kermes. Besides, Sappanwood, native to Ceylon, and Indigo, indigenous to India had been imported into Europe around the 17th century as well.
紅色織錦中國風
編號：2016.18.24
法國，191cmx72cm
染料來源：克玫茲胭脂蟲( 紅色)，紫膠蟲（絳色）
克玫茲胭脂蟲（Kermes vermilio）生長在胭脂蟲櫟上，產(chǎn)地分布于法國、西班牙、摩洛哥、土耳其、黎巴嫩等地中海沿岸。該介殼蟲染料的主要色素為胭脂酮酸。另一種胭脂蟲（Dactylopius spp.）則更為人們熟知，原產(chǎn)地為中南美洲。目前，秘魯和墨西哥的不少村莊都還飼養(yǎng)這種生長在仙人掌上的昆蟲，其主要色素為胭脂蟲酸。
The Kermes (kermes vermilio) grows on kermes oak (Quercus coccifera) and originates from the Mediterranean, including France, Spain, Morocco, Turkey and Lebanon. The main component of the scale insect dye is kermesic acid. Another branch of the Coccidea family that people are more familiar with is Dactylopius spp., indigenous to Central and South America. At present, there are still some villagers in Peru and Mexico feeding such insects living in cactus of the Opuntia family. This product consists predominately of carminic acid.
16世紀，由于在海外貿(mào)易中的活躍，英國和荷蘭不僅是重要的金融中心，也是歐洲的染色工業(yè)中心。路易十四登上皇位后，他的輔佐大臣致力于發(fā)展法國經(jīng)濟，其中第一個扶植的就是紡織業(yè)，頒布的章程中規(guī)定羊毛染色必須使用的染料品種。
17世紀初，歐洲廣泛使用的染料有胭脂蟲、茜草、蘇木，黃色的主要是木犀草，姜黃往往用作打底。紫色除了用藍、紅染料套染，也會用到地衣紫。
Due to prosperous overseas trade, England and Holland were developed into both important financial centers and European centers of the dyeing industry in the 16th century. After Louis XIV ascended the throne, his chief minister dedicated to developing economy. The textile industry was given a priority and issued regulations stipulated that dyeing wool must use some certain of dyes.
At the beginning of the 17th century, the widely used dyes in Europe were mainly obtained from American cochineal, madder and sappanwood. One of the main flavonoid yellow dye sources is weld. And turmeric, was often used as a direct dye, mainly in combination with other dyes. In addition to over-dyeing with blue and red dyes, lichen dyes would also be used to gain purple.
荷蘭綠地妝花織物
編號：2016.18.31
荷蘭，94cmx39cm
染料來源：蘇木（紅色），紅花（紅色），木犀草（黃色），靛青（藍色）
木犀草（Reseda luteola）生長于西南歐，地中海沿岸以及北非，既有野生也有人工種植。該染料是歐洲17-20世紀使用最廣泛的黃色染料，其主要色素為木犀草素、芹菜素及相應的葡萄糖苷。
蘇木（Caesalpinia sappan）和紅花（Carthamus tinctorius）都是外來的植物染料，前者原產(chǎn)于東南亞，后者可能起源于埃及。蘇木經(jīng)明礬媒染得到木紅色。紅花染色過程復雜，需要去除紅花黃色素后才能獲得含量極少的紅花素（carthamin），但由于其顏色明艷純正獲得歐亞各國染匠的喜愛，從7世紀開始，至19世紀末一直廣泛地用作染各種色度的紅色。
天然染料中有兩類來自于海洋的生物，骨螺和地衣。骨螺可染紫色，其染色工藝非常復雜，且價格昂貴。地衣（Roccella spp）也用來染紫色，生長于地中海和大西洋沿岸的巖石峭壁上，屬于真菌類生物。早在公元前就有地衣染色的記載，堿性條件下得到藍紫色，酸性條件下得到紫紅色。
Weld (Reseda luteola), wild but also cultivated, grows in Southwestern Europe, the Mediterranean and North Africa. It was the most-used yellow dye from the 17th to 20th century, with main components of luteolin, apigenin and relative glucosides.
For Europe, both sappanwood (Caesalpinia sappan) and safflower (Carthamus tinctorius) were the exotic plant dyes. The former is native to Southeast Asia and the latter probably Egypt. Dyeing with alum, sappanwood can produce wood red. The dyeing process of safflower is highly complicated and little carthamin can be obtained after removing yellow pigments. However, the pure and bright hue of carthamin was so charming that dyers of Europe and Asia could not help falling in love with it. As a result, it had been widely used to color red with various shades from the beginning of the 17th century to the end of the 19th century. There are two kinds of maritime creatures used as natural dyes, molluscs and lichens. With complicated dyeing process and high costs, different shades of purple can be obtained from molluscus. Lichens, fungus organisms growing in rocky cliffs of the Mediterranean and the Atlantic coast, can be used to produce orchil or archil dyes they were obtained. The record of dyeing with lichens can be dated back to 2,000 years ago. Using lichens, blue purple will be produced amid alkaline conditions, while red purple be obtained within acidic conditions.
18世紀是科學探索的時代，基于牛頓色彩理論的建立，無論是化學家，還是染匠都對染料科學感興趣。同時期，珍妮紡紗機的發(fā)明使人們對豐富色彩的需求更大。第一個半合成染料酸性靛藍在1740年出現(xiàn)，隨后合成的硫酸鋁代替了明礬，100年后，苯胺紫的發(fā)明使天然染料的市場逐漸崩塌。
As 18th century was an age of scientific exploration, chemists and dyers had great interests in dye science which included in Newton's Color Theory. At the same period, people had an even larger demand of colors after the invention of the Spinning Jenny. Indigo carmine, as the first semi-synthetic dye came out in 1740, later synthetic aluminum sulfate took the place of alum. One hundred years after that, the invention of mauveine ended up the market of natural dyes.
版塊2：亞洲的傳統(tǒng)
Part 2 Asian traditions
盡管歐洲分布的國家很多，但各自染料的品種較為相似。而在亞洲，不同地域的染料使用品種各具特色。
中亞染料以伊朗（波斯）染料為代表，擁有享譽世界的特產(chǎn)——地毯，該產(chǎn)業(yè)的興衰從側面可以看到染料的使用情況。薩菲皇朝（16-18世紀中期）是波斯人統(tǒng)治的伊朗，是一個織毯盛行的時代。精美的圖案和絢麗的色彩需要高品質(zhì)的染料。隨后由于戰(zhàn)爭，關于地毯的記載較少。直到18世紀末，卡扎爾皇朝的建立，織毯業(yè)才逐漸恢復。300年來，伊朗染匠使用的紅色染料有茜草，黃色的是黃花飛燕草，黑色的石榴皮和沒食子，另外來自印度的紫膠蟲和木藍也常常用作染色。
南亞的印度歷史非常悠久，但遺憾地是極少有16世紀之前的紡織品保存下來。值得慶幸的是，由于印度對手工業(yè)的保護，直到今天，仍然能夠看到有近20種天然染料在各地的村莊染坊被使用。東南亞的印染受到印度和中國的影響，又具有當?shù)孛褡逄厣?br />
Although there are many countries in Europe, the types of their dyestuffs are similar. Whilst dyestuffs in Asia have unique and distinctive features vary with areas.
Iran’s dyestuffs represented Central Asian dyestuffs and its carpet is a world famous specialty. And the rise and fall of the carpet industry also indicated the development of dyes. The Safavid Dynasty (Mid-16th to Mid-18th centuries) was an era of carpet-weaving when Iran was ruled by Persians. Dyes of high quality are required for fine patterns and brilliant colors. Subsequently, records on carpets are even less due to the war. It was not until the late 18th century, with the establishment of the Qājār Dynasty, that the carpet industry was gradually restored. For 300 years, Iranian dyers have been using madder as red dye, larkspur as yellow dye, pomegranate peels and sumac galls as black dyes, Lac and indigo (Indigofera tinctoria) from India were also used for dyeing Iranian textiles.
India is a country in South Asia with pretty long history, but unfortunately very few pre-16th century textiles reserve. At the same time, thanks to the protection of Indian handicraft industries, nearly 20 kinds of natural dyes today are being used in village dyehouses all over the country so far as we know. The textile printing industry in southeast Asia is influenced by India and China with local characteristics.
典禮儀式用船布
編號：2014.61.15
印度尼西亞，232cmx56cm
染料來源：海巴戟天（紅色），姜黃（黃色），靛青（藍色）
黃花飛燕草（Delphinium semibarbatum）是伊朗、阿富汗和北印度特有的黃色染料植物。關于它的歷史記載不多，中國新疆地區(qū)曾出土回鶻時期該植物染色的緙絲長袍。
海巴戟天（Morinda citrifolia）是東南亞典型的紅色染料，其主要成分為蒽醌類化合物巴戟醌。
17-19世紀，東南亞、中南半島和中國南部使用范圍最廣的黃色染料是姜黃（Curcuma longa），該染料易于著色，但光照牢度欠佳。其主要色素成分為姜黃素及其兩種衍生物。
Larkspur (Delphinium semibarbatum), which is used for making yellow dyestuff is unique in Iran, Afghanistan and north India. There are few historical records about it. The Kesi robe dyed with larkspur in the Uighur period was unearthed in Xinjiang, China.
Indian mulberry (Morinda citrifolia) is a typical red dyestuff in southeast Asia. Its main component is an anthraquinone compound, morinone. In the 17th and 19th centuries, Turmeric (Curcuma longa) was the most widely used yellow dyestuff in Southeast Asia, Indochina and Southern China. The dyestuff is easy to tint but has low light fastness. The main components are curcumin and its two derivatives.
東亞以中國為代表，17世紀至20世紀處于中國最后一個封建王朝——清朝。清朝的統(tǒng)治者沿襲明朝的制度，紡織印染技術也是對前朝的傳承。明朝的《天工開物》介紹了當時的染料品種和染色方法，清代的《布經(jīng)》反映了江浙一帶染布的秘訣和配方。特別重要的歷史文獻是清代宮廷內(nèi)務府織染局的銷算檔案，不僅有色彩名稱，而且還記載了染料助劑的配比。無論是染絲還是染布都集中在江南地區(qū)。日本和朝鮮半島的印染技術與中國有相同的地方，17世紀之前，中國的染料和染色方法就輸入了這兩個地區(qū)。
In regard to characteristic dyestuffs, East Asia takes China for its represent. The Qing Dynasty, which is the last feudal dynasty in China from the 17th century to the 20th century, follows the etiquette system and the textile printing and dyeing technology of the Ming Dynasty. Tiangong Kaiwu (Exploitation of Products from the Nature by Combination of Artificial Skills and Natural Power), written by Song Yingsing in Ming Dynasty, introduces the dye varieties and dyeing methods at that time; The Book of Cloth, which was written in Qing Dynasty, shows the methods and formula of dyeing cloth in Jiangsu and Zhejiang provinces. The record of the Textile and Dyeing Department of Nei WU Fu in Qing Dynasty, which is an important historic reference, not only records the names of colors, but also records dyeing recipes. Both the silk and cloth dyeing industries are concentrated in the south of the Yangtze River. The printing and dyeing technology in Japan and the Korean Peninsula is similar to that in China as China’s dyes and dyeing methods were introduced to these regions before 17th century.
明黃地五彩云龍妝花緞
編號：0289
中國，85cmx42.5cm
染料來源：紅花（紅色），蘇木（紅色），靛青（藍色），黃檗（黃色），槐米（黃色），姜黃（黃色）
到了清代（1616-1912），用于服飾染色的染料品種主要有十余種，使用頻率較高的為紅花、蘇木、槐米、黃檗、姜黃、靛青、五倍子和橡碗子。其中，具有東亞特色的植物染料是槐米和黃檗。
槐米是槐樹（Sophora japonica）未開放的花蕾，富含蘆丁，可以染得明艷的黃色，是明清兩代染黃色的主要植物染料。黃檗（Phellodendron amurense）是小檗堿類植物，無論是中國還是日本均用作染黃色。另外，黃檗打底色與紅花套染能夠節(jié)約紅色素的消耗而染得紅色。
By the Qing Dynasty (1616-1912), there were more than ten kinds of dyes used to dye textiles. The most frequently used dyes were safflower, sappanwood, bud of pagoda tree, amur cork, turmeric, indigo, gallnut and top of oak tree fruit. Among them, pagoda tree and amur cork are special East Asian plant dyestuffs.
Bud of pagoda tree is the main vegetable dyestuff in Ming and Qing dynasties as it is rich in rutin so that it can produce bright yellow. Amur cork (Phellodendron amurense) is a berberine-based plant, producing yellow. In addition, using amur cork as the base and over-dyeing with safflower can produce red while consuming less carthamin.
石青緞繡團鶴料
編號：0302
中國，30cmx22cm
染料來源：蘇木（紅色），靛青（藍色），黃檗（黃色），姜黃（黃色），黃荊（黃色）
單寧和靛青
含單寧的植物或昆蟲蟲癭可以染黑色，歐亞染匠常使用鹽膚木（Rhus spp）的樹皮或葉子，以及寄生的五倍子與鐵媒染得到黑色，也使用櫟樹（Quercus spp）果實的殼斗。中亞地區(qū)則使用當?shù)氐奶禺a(chǎn)石榴皮（Punica granatum）和核桃皮（Juglans regia）染黑色。由于大多數(shù)黑色染料均為單寧類，吸附在織物纖維后形成鞣花酸，故很難鑒別黑色染料的來源。同樣的難題也出現(xiàn)在靛青植物來源的區(qū)分，所有含靛植物形成靛青后都只存在兩種主要色素靛藍和靛玉紅。歐洲本地的含靛植物是菘藍（Isatis tinctoria），東亞使用的是蓼藍（Polygonum tinctorium），而東南亞和南亞盛產(chǎn)木藍（Indigofera tinctoria）和馬藍（strobilanthes cusia）。由于四種藍草中，木藍和馬藍中色素的含量較高，18世紀以后，歐洲和亞洲普遍使用這兩種植物制靛染藍。因此，17世紀至20世紀初，印度成為世界上出口靛青最多的國家。
Tannin and Indigo
Tannin-type dyes were mainly used to produce blacks on textiles all over the world in the past, for example, various species of oak trees (Quercus spp) have been widely applied to dyeing and producing black with iron from the 17th century to the end of 19th century. In addition to oak, European and Asian dyers dyed black with sumac, not only barks and leaves (e.g. Rhus coriaria) but also galls (e.g. Rhus chinensis) of these plants contain abundant of tannin. In Central Asia, the dyers would use local specialties such as pomegranate (Punica granatum) and walnut (Juglans regia) to produce black. It is quite difficult to identify plant sources of the black dyes as most of them contain mainly tannins and they would form ellagic acid after adsorbing on fabric fibers in most cases. The similar problem also arises when distinguish the different species of indigo-based plants, such as Isatis tinctoria (Europe), Polygonum tinctorium (East Asia), Indigofera tinctoria (Southeast Asia) and strobilanthes cusia (South Asia) as extracts of all indigo dyed textiles have indigotin and indirubin as the major components. Among these four plants, Indigofera tinctoria and strobilanthes cusia contain high content of indigoids, so they were widely used after the 18th century. Therefore, India became the largest exporter of indigo in the world during the 17th century to the early 20th century.
結語
本次展覽通過文物的展示和染料的鑒別回顧了300年歐洲與亞洲染料使用的歷史，基本呈現(xiàn)了歐亞大陸各個地區(qū)常見的典型染料。通過染料地圖，我們可以發(fā)現(xiàn)有些染料具有明顯的區(qū)域性，比如地衣紫、黃花飛燕草；有些染料的使用橫貫東西，比如蘇木、紅花；還有些染料的植物來源不同，但最終附著于織物上均是同一類色素，比如單寧和靛青。
早在上個世紀中期，合成染料已經(jīng)在紡織工業(yè)市場取代了天然染料，天然染料的時代不可再回。然而，今天的人們在社會生活中對于自然、生態(tài)、和諧的追求卻越來越強烈，天然染料在一定范圍內(nèi)的應用正是這種追求的體現(xiàn)。
Conclusion
Through the presentation and identification of cultural relics, the exhibition gives a review of 300 years history of use of dyestuffs in Asia and Europe, presenting typical dyes which were often seen in different regions of Eurasia. According to the dye distribution map, we can clear see that some dyes such as the orchil and larkspur have distinctive regional characteristics; some are widely used in the East and the West like sappanwood and safflower; some have different origins but eventually adsorbing on the fabric and being the same pigments like tannin and indigo. As early as the middle of last century, the natural dyes have been replaced by the synthetic dyes in the textile industry. The era of using natural dyes was gone. However, nowadays people have stronger eager for a natural, ecological and harmony life, while the appropriate application of the natural dyes exactly meets that eager.
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